Idiophones and membranophones
Since ancient times, the most ancestral and primitive instruments were percussion instruments, and more specifically concussion instruments and idiophones, which are made of naturally resonant materials and need no additional tension to produce sound.
Although these instruments were originally made of primitive materials such as bone, stone or wood, their construction gradually
evolved. Hollowed-out logs appeared to provide a resonating chamber, and they were struck with bones used as sticks. Finally, an animal skin was added to the log as a membrane, and so the first trace of the membranophone family appeared: all the types of drums in the world that sound by means of stretched membranes.
With the appearance and use of iron, idiophones continued to appear, but they were now more elaborately made in order to obtain a specific sound from them (cowbells and sheep bells). The same happened with clay and the clay pot, which, although originally a container, was eventually found to have acoustic properties and became an instrument that could be struck (udu).
Classification
Idiophones can be:
a) Concussion instruments, which are pairs of instruments played with one hand (castanets) or both (cymbals, claves…)
b) Struck instruments, single (bell) or in sets (marimba, vibraphone…)
c) Shaken instruments (rattles, shekeres….)
d) Plucked instruments (kalimba or sansa)
e) Friction instruments (cuíca, zambomba…), etc.
Membranophones are classified according to their material, their shape, the number of membranes, the way the membranes are fastened and tensioned, the playing position and the way they are played (hands, mallets, friction…), etc...
There are even struck-string instruments, such as the psaltery, whose acoustic principle and playing method would give rise to the harpsichord and, more recently, the piano. The struck string is also the principle behind the berimbau.
All these classifications give rise to today's families of rhythm and percussion instruments, among which we could highlight the following:
- Gongs (all the sizes and models from Asia)
- Rattles (jingle bells, caxixis, maracas, cabasa, tambourines, shakers…)
- Metals (triangle, flexatone, sistrum, cymbals, crotales, bar chimes, cowbells)
- Woods (güiro, castanets, wood block, claves, ratchet, temple block..)
- Bars (xylophone, glockenspiel, bell lyre, metallophone, marimba, vibraphone…)
- Bells (all sizes and models of clapper bells, tubular bells…)
- Membranes (orchestral timpani, timbales, congas, bongos..)
- Drum kit (the modern drum set combining kick drum, snare, toms and cymbals)
These families of rhythm instruments are typically approached from the perspective of music conservatories, in a very European way, but if we dig deeper we will see that on all five continents there are more instruments related to these ones already classified by the white man.
Examples include the Indian tabla, the African djembe, the Afro-Cuban batá drums, the steel drums of Trinidad, Indian frame drums, Mexican rain sticks, the Peruvian cajón, etc.... Each of them would have to be included in one of the families/classifications already mentioned, because although some people label these instruments as ethnic or exotic, they still belong to the families of:
Membranes (in the case of the tabla, the djembe, frame drums, the batá). Batá drums are also double-headed membranophones, that is, they have two playable heads, one on each side of the drum body, which sets them apart from single-headed membranophones such as the djembe, congas, etc.
- Bars (in the case of steel drums)
- Rattles (in the case of the rain stick).
- Woods (in the case of the cajón).
A closer look at the lesser-known ones
If we go on to describe some instruments in more depth, I feel obliged to describe the lesser-known ones we have mentioned, which may have raised questions among readers.
The udu is an instrument of African origin based on the jugs used to store water and oil; it is also native to India (where it is known as the “ghatam”) and may or may not have a side hole in its body (other names: pot, jug…). It is a very old, ancestral instrument that emerged from an everyday utensil and was also played at celebrations and festive occasions. We can consider it a percussion instrument in the proper sense when it has a hole or opening in its body, which is struck with the palm of the hand to produce a deep “bubbling” or watery sound; high or metallic sounds are also obtained by striking the belly of the pot with the fingers. Its technique is similar to that of the Indian tabla.
Claves are two small wooden sticks that make up a concussion idiophone. They are played with both hands and serve as the rhythmic guide in styles such as Cuban son and rumba. The holding hand acts as a resonating chamber.
The shekere is a gourd covered with a woven net of beads made from seeds and small balls; it is played by shaking it from one hand to the other while also striking its base with the palm. It is typical of Africa and Cuba.
The kalimba or sansa consists of a small wooden box with metal tines screwed to the wood by means of a metal strap, and when plucked it sounds like a small harp (Africa).
The cuíca is a small metal drum with a thin stick attached to its head, located inside the drum body (unlike the zambomba, which has the stick on the outside). It produces a very funny sound, like laughter or monkey howls, obtained by rubbing the stick with a damp cloth and applying more or less pressure to the head. Its origin is the African kinfuiti.
The berimbau is an instrument of Angolan origin that spread to Brazil; it consists of a bow with a taut wire and, at the bottom, a gourd that acts as a resonating chamber and is adjusted against the tension of the wire, allowing the tuning to be changed. It is played with a stick, a stone, etc...
The caxixi is an Afro-Brazilian instrument made of woven wicker in the shape of a small basket, with seeds inside; the base is made of gourd, and the seeds strike against it, producing a high sound similar to a hi-hat.
The cabasa is a kind of bearing with rings of metal beads that, when turned in the hand with a flick of the wrist, produce a metallic scraping sound. It is typical of Brazil and was originally made of gourd and netting.
The shaker is a metal tube containing seeds, pebbles or pellets, which is shaken like a cocktail shaker and produces a fine metallic scraping sound. Widely used in samba.
The flexatone is a flexible metal sheet with two small wooden balls attached that bounce against the sheet while the thumb tightens and loosens it, producing a very curious metallic, elastic effect. The whole system is mounted on a handle so that you can make wrist strokes while pressing with your thumb.
The sistrum is a kind of rattle made up of rings placed on a metal frame, with a handle for shaking it. It can also be found in wood with gourd rings (Africa).
The güiro is a ridged scraper made of wood or gourd that gives a “croaking” sound when a stick is slid across the ridges along its body. In Cuba, the shekere is also known as a “güiro” because it is made from the same fruit (the güira).
Temple blocks are a set of tuned wooden blocks or wooden “coconuts.”
Timbales or pailas are the result of the evolution of orchestral timpani and their adaptation to popular music in Cuba. They are also called “cajas rumberas.”
Tumbadoras or congas descend from the African ngoma drums, of Congo or Bantu origin. They are single-headed drums that evolved over time into barrels with tacked rawhide heads and, more recently, innovated with a key-tuning system. The instrument's name has survived to this day because of its Congo or Bantu origin.
Bongos are smaller drums joined in pairs; traditionally they are played sitting down, held between the legs, although they can also be mounted on a stand to play standing up. They are the result of adapting one of the Abakuá drums and the high heads of the batá drums (chachá) to Cuban popular music: from the religious to the secular.
The Indian tabla is an instrument used in Hindustani classical music, consisting of two drums played on the floor. One is metal and rounded like a pot (bayan) and produces deep sounds that bend in pitch depending on how hard we press the head with the palm of the hand; the other drum is wooden and cylindrical (dayan) and gives high, metallic sounds when tapped with the fingers. They are single-headed drums whose heads are composite and include black circles of a different texture to provide harmonics (these circles are made from rice paste mixed with manganese oxide). Its technique is very complex and requires a great deal of study.
The djembe is a drum that has become very well known in Spain lately. It comes from Africa, more specifically from the Malinke and Mandinka peoples (Guinea Conakry). It is a single-headed, goblet-shaped drum, because of the shape of the tree root used to make it (the root is cut down and hollowed out to make the resonating chamber). Its sound is very high at the edge of the head, but striking the center with the palm produces a powerful bass tone. I mentioned the Malinke because they are the ethnic group that speaks and communicates with this instrument.
Batá drums are three double-headed drums of African (Yoruba) origin that reached their full development in Cuba, where rhythms that have already been lost in Africa are preserved. When the Cuban batá drummers presented their rhythms before the king of Nigeria, it was a moment of great anticipation, since it proved that the tradition was still alive and the language of those drums was recognized. The three drums are, from largest to smallest, the iyá, the itótele and the okónkolo, and they are used in religious music, for the worship of the Orishas.
Steel drums are oil drums cut at different heights, with their steel base divided into sections by hammering. Each section is tuned to a musical note, making it possible to cover the same range of notes as a keyboard. Today such perfection in tuning has been achieved that, when they are used in recordings, those unfamiliar with them think they are keyboards. To me they are proof of the great musical ability and ingenuity of the Afro-Caribbean musicians of Trinidad and Tobago. They are played with rubber mallets.
The rain stick is a bamboo tube with a spiral maze built inside out of thinner bamboo sticks, through which pebbles, seeds and/or bits of crushed shell move, creating a very striking sound of falling water when tilted from one side to the other. Many are made in Mexico.
The Peruvian cajón is an instrument adopted in Spain by flamenco musicians, but its origin is Afro-Peruvian. It has spread so widely in Spain that people now speak of the flamenco cajón. It was introduced to our country by Pepe Ébano and later by Paco de Lucía, who, seeing its sonic possibilities, asked Rubem Dantas to play the different flamenco “palos” (styles) on it; the result was a sensation for that music, and flamenco cajón players have taken this instrument to a higher level of technique and virtuosity.
Percussionists you shouldn't miss
Among the great artists in the world of percussion, I'd like to start by mentioning El Piraña, since we were talking about people who had raised the level of the cajón in our country; I should also mention El Bandolero and Chaboli in flamenco music. 
In Afro-Brazilian music and jazz, I want to mention the work of the great Airto Moreira, one of the percussionists who best handles colors and atmospheres with all kinds of gadgets and the small percussion instruments mentioned, as well as Naná Vasconcelos.
In Cuba, the greatest exponent of Afro-Cuban drum culture and rumba is “Los Muñequitos de Matanzas”; nobody like them to help us understand the roots of yesteryear and the folklore of the Yoruba, Arará, Abakuá traditions, etc. As a master timbalero, I can't fail to name the great José Luis Quintana (Changuito). As a conga player, Giovanni Hidalgo, and as a bongo player, Roberto Roena.
Speaking of Indian music, tabla and udu, I can't fail to mention the great Zakir Hussain and Trilok Gurtu. As for the musicians of Trinidad and Tobago, Ellie Mannette deserves special mention as the pioneer in making and innovating steel drums.
On djembe, the master Mamady Keita, who has taught all over the world and is one of the most virtuosic soloists, deserves special mention.
The truth is that, out of the respect I have for the drum, for the musicians mentioned and for the many I haven't named, I consider this article the beginning of countless topics to explore. A big hug, and may God rest the great rumbero Rudy Calzado, who sang: “At the door of my house I have an almond tree, with a sign that says: whoever doesn't know, let them learn.”